Bridging Policy Gaps in Air Quality Management: A Strategic Framework for Efficient Air Quality Management in Mumbai
- Rehman Shaikh
- 5 days ago
- 17 min read
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1.The Air we breathe
Air carries particulate matter with it (PM₁₀, PM₂.₅) along with gases like Ozone, Oxides of Nitrogen, and sulfur. Particulate matter is a tiny particle (solid or liquid) suspended in the air that originates from sources such as dust, smoke, and soot. The permissible level of particulate matter in different sizes sets standards for pollution levels in a spatial area. The PM level, along with other indicators, decides the Air Quality Index of the particular area.
In Mumbai, the acceptable PM levels are approximately 40 μg/m3 for PM 2.5 and 100 μg/m3 for PM 10, according to National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Data from aqi.in on Mumbai’s AQI trends for the past decade provides an interesting picture. Despite fluctuations in AQI levels, the average AQI has risen by 9% from 2020, indicating a persisting problem. The average annual PM 2.5 had been 83 μg/m3 in 2024 with levels surpassing 100 µg/m³ and PM 10 over 150–200 µg/m³ at various parts of mumbai.
With a population of over 20 million in the metropolitan region of Mumbai ( over 6% of India’s GDP, 25% of Industrial output and 70 % of maritime trade ) air pollution not only has an adverse public health and wellbeing in Mumbai, but also represents a monetary burden in the form of personal burden, government expenditure, societal cost, and pressures on the healthcare system. Air pollution is also responsible for steep economic costs. Every fiscal year, Indian businesses lose an approximate US$95 billion due to loss of productivity, absences at work, premature deaths, and morbidity attributable to air pollution.
Several studies have revealed a correlation between air pollutants and the rise in incidence of premature mortality and acute morbid effects in Mumbai. Health risks of Mumbai’s major pollutants, Particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) include dyspnoea, chronic cough, rhinitis, chronic bronchitis, high blood pressure, and respiratory and ischaemic heart diseases.
Air quality varies depending on local, geographical, environmental, socio-economic factors, requiring strategic management through robust standards, policies, and regulatory frameworks.
This white paper aims to analyze the policy gaps in Mumbai’s air quality management, examining current regulatory measures, pollution levels, and key sources. It further outlines actionable recommendations to bridge these gaps and ensure the protection of public health and the environment.
The mean PM₁₀ level for Mumbai in 2024 is approximately 115 µg/m³ [2x the CPCB India limit (60 µg/m³)] ; [3x the EU limit (40 µg/m³) ] and [7.5x the WHO limit (15 µg/m³)]
The mean PM₂.₅ level for Mumbai in 2024 is approximately 83 µg/m³. That’s about 2x the CPCB India limit (40 µg/m³) ; 3.3x the EU limit (25 µg/m³); and 16.6x the WHO limit (5 µg/m³).
2.AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT: A FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE
2.1 SECTORAL ANALYSIS OF AIR POLLUTION IN MUMBAI
Mumbai, as simultaneously one of India’s most congested and most highly populated cities, presents a unique challenge to reducing air pollutant levels. Rising air pollution in Mumbai can be attributed to a rise in population, congestion, commercial activity, construction, and vehicular traffic owing to twin effects of industrialisation and urbanisation. These factors collectively contribute to rising air pollution, acting as emission sources that manifest in Mumbai’s deteriorating air quality :
●CONSTRUCTION AND DUST
With rising urbanisation, the city has faced a rise in construction of residential complexes on a large scale, leading to a changing land use pattern. The rise in construction of high rise buildings and highways in recent years has led to a massive increase in road dust. Road dust has come to make up over 30% of the PM10 in Mumbai’s atmosphere (MPCB). Construction further contributes another 9% of particulate matter in Mumbai (MPCB). The last decade has seen the sharpest rise in road dust due to displacement and debris during transport. The widespread construction of high rise buildings inhibits the penetration of the sea breeze into the city which disperses pollutants and dilutes pollutant levels in the atmosphere, escalating the existing problem.
● VEHICULAR POLLUTION
80% of Mumbai’s fossil fuel emissions can be attributed to road travel (ORF). Vehicular pollution is the largest contributor to poor air quality in Mumbai, responsible for 30.5% of emissions in 2019-20 (System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research). This figure has doubled from 2016-17, which is a concerning rise given the steady and continual upward trend in antecedent factors. Twin effects of rising industrialisation and urbanisation have led to a rise in vehicular pollution due to a rise in commercial and personal vehicles. Inadequacies in the public transport system have increased the reliance on personalised and private transport. Expansion of the tertiary service sector in Mumbai has propelled a further boom in congestion and vehicular traffic. High vehicular density in Indian mega cities has led to pollutant buildup near roadways and traffic intersections.
● WASTE MANAGEMENT AND BIOMASS BURNING
Mumbai is home to India’s largest waste dumping grounds. Decomposing waste in landfills releases noxious gases and air pollutants. There is also widespread burning of biomass and waste in Mumbai’s landfills which contributes to worsening air quality. Rubbish fires are responsible for 11% of Mumbai’s particulate matter (BBC). Despite the push to switch to waste treatment plants, limitations in the number and capacity of waste treatment places combined with noncompliance of rules have led to a reliance on landfills which boost Mumbai’s air pollution. Urbanisation and high property values have led to a rise in the share of population living in slums who are forced to scavenge through garbage for wood, coal, and biofuels for kitchen fires as well as warmth in winters. Over 27% of PM2.5 generated in Mumbai can be attributed to the use of biofuels (Times of India).
●INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY
Mumbai acts as a national commercial, industrial, and trading base, hosting pharmaceutical factories, thermal power plants, fertilizer companies, oil refineries and engineering, electronic, and electrical businesses. In addition, Mumbai has a well developed and growing service sector which represents a continual expansion in commercial activity. Industrial sources account for 18% of Mumbai’s air pollution (Times of India). Over 26% of PM2.5 generated in Mumbai can be attributed to industrial activity (Times of India). Despite the large contribution, under the National Clean Air Programme, less than 1% of funds have been dedicated to combating air pollution owing to industrial activity in India (The Indian Express).
● MARINE ACTIVITIES
Mumbai owes 18% of its PM10 and 26% of its PM2.5 to Marine activity (MBCB). Mumbai harbours India’s busiest ports which host numerous coastal activities daily, including transportation, fossil-fuel powered passenger and cargo ships, fishing vessels, and logistical operations. Poor regulation and a lack of motivation have supported the continuous use of old ships, lower-quality fuels, and rarity in repairs of fuel tanks and other machinery, all of which contribute to higher levels of air pollution. The fossil fuels used in ships are significant contributors of PM 2.5, NOx, and SOx. A subsided sea-land breeze adds to the increased levels of PM 2.5 in the inland area. Despite the large contribution of this source to levels of PM10 and PM2.5 in Mumbai’s atmosphere, there is a lack of effort and budget dedicated to controlling marine emission levels. This is likely because national level policies and guidelines show little consideration to an emission source unique to Mumbai, a city which hosts India’s largest ports.
2.2 POLICY FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS
A policy analysis at the international, national, state, and local levels revealed several policy gaps and deficiencies influencing Mumbai’s Air Quality management.
1.Lack of uniformity and coordination amongst organisations:
Disparities in air quality standards tend to provide a misleading picture of environmental health. The Table a illustrates key differences in categorization of concentration levels (μg/m³) of PM₂.₅ amongst WHO, EU, and India’s CPCB. WHO recommends safe levels of PM2.5 to be below 15 μg/m³, the EU accepts safe levels up to 25 μg/m³, whereas India’s CPCB has a much higher acceptable range, as high as 90 μg/m³ to consider the quality of air to be poor. These inconsistent benchmarks lead to fragmented air quality management policies across international, national, and local levels, undermining efforts to protect public health. This has far reaching implications for the health and well-being of Indian citizens.
The Air Quality Life Index Report by the University of Chicago claims that the life expectancy of an average Indian is shortened by 5.3 years, compared to a scenario where India subscribed WHO’s recommended limit of 5 μg/m³.
Further exacerbating the issue is the lack of coordination regarding air pollution efforts mitigation among agencies such as the BMC, MPCB, and other local bodies. The absence of a central nodal authority results in a lack of accountability, with these bodies operating in silos taking little responsibility for outcomes. India’s poor air quality levels can be attributed to inconsistent standards which hamper the effectiveness of policy responses when pollution spikes.
Pollutant | Time-Averaged Limit | WHO Standard | CPCB (India) | EU Standard |
PM₂.₅ | 24-hour average | 15 µg/m³ | 60 µg/m³ | — |
| Annual average | 5 µg/m³ | 40 µg/m³ | 25 µg/m³ |
PM₁₀ | 24-hour average | 45 µg/m³ | 100 µg/m³ | 50 µg/m³ |
| Annual average | 15 µg/m³ | 60 µg/m³ | 40 µg/m³ |
NO₂ | 1-hour average | 200 µg/m³ | 80 µg/m³ | 200 µg/m³ |
| Annual average | 10 µg/m³ | 40 µg/m³ | 40 µg/m³ |
SO₂ | 24-hour average | 40 µg/m³ | 80 µg/m³ | — |
| Annual average | 20 µg/m³ | — | — |
Air quality standards for key pollutants (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃) across the World Health Organization (WHO), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB - India), and European Union (EU):
2.Unavailability of National level / local awareness campaign
One of the most critical gaps in India’s air quality management landscape is the lack of a nation wide or local awareness campaign on air quality. Unlike successful initiatives such as Swachh Bharat or Polio Eradication, there is no sustained media effort to educate citizens on health risks, pollution sources, or individual actions to reduce exposure like the usage of N95 masks, indoor/outdoor air quality monitoring and other best practices which countries like UK and China had been successful while running robust public campaigns.
Also a more localised user-friendly public access to air pollution levels is required. While data is technically available through the portals of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards, it is often difficult to navigate and download, poorly organised, fragmented, and not in formats conducive to analysis or public understanding, necessitating technical expertise and significant preprocessing before use. This deficiency in comprehensible and analysis-ready data limits the public's ability to understand the scale of the air pollution problem and hinders the efforts of researchers, journalists, policymakers, and civil society organizations.
Increasing public awareness about air pollution by rendering air quality data accessible, usable, and comprehensible can empower Indian citizens and researchers to engage meaningfully with and tackle the air pollution crisis.
3.Inadequate monitoring and evaluation
Regarding monitoring and evaluation, significant policy gaps exist due to insufficient investment in real-time air quality monitoring, comprehensive source apportionment studies, and detailed health impact assessments. Other major metropolitan cities globally have made substantial progress in these areas. The lack of cross-sectoral priority on air pollution affects the efficacy of air pollution mitigation efforts in the city.
The Air pollution crisis in Mumbai is exacerbated by inadequate monitoring infrastructure, which limits accurate and comprehensive tracking of the city's Air Quality Index (AQI). Mumbai currently has only 30 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS). London, a city with half the population of Mumbai uses reference grade continuous monitors at over 150 locations. Furthermore, Mumbai’s air quality monitoring stations are frequently offline for maintenance, repairs, and inspections.
The absence of a comprehensive and transparent monitoring and evaluation framework applied to government policies and regulations hinders the ability to test their effectiveness or adapt them based on outcomes. Without systematic mechanisms to track implementation, measure impact, and incorporate feedback, policies remain static, with little scope for refinement or evidence-based improvement which limits their efficacy.
4.Poor implementation and enforcement
Despite the presence of an expansive regulatory framework for air quality management, there is a stark disparity between policy design and its enforcement on the ground. Over 67% of India’s population lives in areas where levels of PM2.5 exceed the national guidelines for PM2.5 levels. This indicates failures and deficiencies in effective implementation and compliance mechanisms which need to be identified and solved. The systemic factors hindering the implementation of policies and guidelines include weak punitive measures which aren’t adequate to act as deterrents, limited institutional capacity, inadequate scrutiny and surveillance mechanisms, and high levels of corruption which undermine transparency and accountability.
5.Outdated regulatory frameworks
The air quality regulatory frameworks are rarely revisited and updated to reflect the current, continually evolving air quality landscape, preventing it from being able to address emerging environmental and health challenges.
Mumbai as a densely populated coastal megacity with a unique urban profile—including major ports, congestion, industrial, construction, and marine activities —faces a distinct set of air quality challenges in terms of the sources as well as the types of pollutants which pose the greatest risk. Applying broad, one-size-fits-all regulatory frameworks without accounting for these local nuances severely weakens their effectiveness.
1.DUST MITIGATION EFFORTS
64% of government funds under the National Clean Air Programme have been spent on dust suppression, namely anti-smog guns and water sprinklers (The Indian Express). However, these measures are meant to suppress existing particulate matter in the air rather than target the root cause of dust pollution, that is, inadequate adoption of safety measures in construction activities. We recommend the government shift its focus from stopgap measures to long-term solutions. Expenditure should be diverted to stricter regulation and proactive oversight of construction sites to ensure emissions are controlled at the source. Dust mitigation measures should be planned and included during the scheduling stage of construction projects, giving special consideration to pollutant-intensive construction activities such as excavation, demolition, and material transport.
2.MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Monitoring and evaluation of Government policies and programmes are essential to track progress, test efficacy, ensure accountability, and offer public transparency. These can, in turn, increase the effectiveness of policies, facilitate optimal resource allocation, and foster improvements in policy design and implementation. We have identified deficits in the monitoring and evaluation measures instituted by the government regarding air pollution measures in Mumbai, which we recommend that the Government should address. The coverage of air quality monitoring stations in Mumbai should be expanded, especially in regions with high congestion, to enable identification and subsequent targeting of harmful and excessive emission sources. Reliable and comprehensive data on air pollution, which is ready for analysis and up to date, should be made readily available to the public to facilitate awareness, research, and innovation.
A licensed third-party organisation should be appointed to conduct an independent monitoring and evaluation assessment of Mumbai’s air pollution measures to ensure transparency, reliability, and reduce avenues for corruption. The results from this assessment should be used to reevaluate the policies and guidelines to improve efficacy and diagnose deficiencies and breakdowns to course-correct.
3.COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT
Although there is a largely inclusive and expansive set of guidelines and policies meant to target air pollution in Mumbai at national, international, and local levels, Mumbai continues to face the issue of rising air pollution. This indicates a high rate of noncompliance with guidelines and failures of enforcement and implementation of policies. We propose that the government independently study, identify, and subsequently resolve the problems that result in low levels of compliance and implementation failures to increase the efficacy of its policy interventions. A Regulation Impact Statement (RIS) can be used for the same. A RIS articulates a policy problem, identifies possible options for solving it, and estimates the costs and benefits of each solution to determine the most efficient pathway.
Technological intervention should be considered to enhance levels of compliance and enforcement. Regular and randomised audits should be conducted without prior notice at shorter intervals to check compliance with policies. Repeat offenders should be targeted with higher scrutiny and penalties in audits. Higher fines and legal consequences should be imposed on regulatory defaulters to deter noncompliance with policies and strengthen enforcement of regulations. Transparency mechanisms should be strengthened to root out corruption in order to ensure effective Implementation of policies.
4.IMPROVE BENCHMARKS
Our policy analysis revealed that Indian standards for good AQI levels are substantially lower than those considered safe by the World Health Organisation, European Union, and other international institutions. This provides false assurance and legitimacy to air pollution control efforts, lulling the public into a false sense of security. It also fosters complacency amongst those charged with reducing air pollution levels to safe ranges.
India’s entire population of over 1.4 Billion lives in an environment where levels of PM2.5 exceed the guidelines set by the WHO, exposing Indian citizens to dangerous health risks. We propose that the Indian government subscribe to WHO guidelines for Air pollution levels since the current guidelines are inadequate to protect the safety, health, and well-being of Indian citizens. Adopting WHO-recommended PM2.5 limits would provide a more accurate assessment of health risks associated with pollutants and drive more urgent and effective pollution control measures.
5.TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Deficiencies in Mumbai’s public transport infrastructure should be eliminated to decrease the reliance on privatised transport. The shift to electric vehicles in the public transport system can significantly lower greenhouse emissions and exhaust fumes. The connectivity of public transport systems should be improved to encourage the shift to public transport. Problems of congestion, overcrowding, and concerns of safety due to catcalling and groping continue to pose barriers to the adoption of public transport which should be solved for.
Auto Rickshaws are the most widely used connectivity transport service in Mumbai. 66% of Auto Rickshaws in Maharashtra have been proven to be running on the road without conforming to fitness and pollution norms (Hindustan Times). WRI has been advocating for the shift to E-rickshaws in Indian cities, emphasizing their potential to reduce air pollution and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Although the transition to e-rickshaws has been adapted extensively in cities like Delhi, Mumbai has faced its fair share of resistance and technical constraints in the shift. We propose that the shift to E-rickshaws be accelerated and incentivised to decrease vehicular emissions in Mumbai. There’s a need to establish viable business models for existing Auto unions to switch to E-rickshaws via public private partnership to further incentivise the transition.
6.SHIFT FOCUS FROM PM₁₀ TO PM₂.₅
Our analysis revealed that a majority of government expenditure and efforts under the NCAP has been dedicated to reducing levels of PM10 in the atmosphere. However, PM2.5 has been identified as one of the most dangerous and harmful pollutants and it is a more relevant health indicator of air quality improvement. We propose that the government shift its focus to targeting the reduction of PM2.5 and institute stricter guidelines to control its levels in the atmosphere.
Mumbai’s PM2.5 levels are largely owed to emission-spewing combustion sources, namely industrial activities, biofuel and biomass burning, port activities, and vehicles. The NCAP should prioritise measures to control pollution from these sources at the point of origin. Source-capture technology can be deployed at high emission locations. The adoption of devices which capture vehicular emissions at the source can be incentivised. An emissions monitoring infrastructure can be established to ensure real-time compliance with air quality norms.
7.ECO-FRIENDLY CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The construction sector contributes to Mumbai’s air pollution in ways other than dust emissions. It is also responsible for emitting pollutants including Volatile organic compounds, greenhouse gases, Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxide, Sulphur Dioxide, and Methane, often owing to the nature of building materials. An Eco-conscious construction model should be adopted and incentivised through policy incentives, impact investments, and public-private partnerships.
Civil engineering curricula and construction best practices generally ignore the environmental externalities of construction materials. Environmental impact assessments of building materials should be included in the curriculum of training institutions and universities to encourage the adoption of sustainable and non toxic construction materials. Eco-friendly materials like stainless steel, bamboo should be incentivized along with the installation of solar panels and water harvesting systems. Air quality guidelines should prescribe the use of low-emission construction materials, starting with Public sector projects. Subsidies should be used to further incentivise the adoption of such construction materials and stimulate innovation in the sector.
In October 2024, India’s Supreme Court affirmed that breathing clean, pollution-free air is a fundamental right. The metropolitan of Mumbai requires a very comprehensive and adaptive policy framework with more efficient enforcement and implementation.
Bridging the gaps in regulations in the air quality management implementation we can ensure a more cleaner , healthier and resilient Mumbai.
Meet The Thought Leader
Laboni is a mentor at GGI and is currently working at The Bridgespan Group as a Senior Associate Consultant. She takes interest in socioeconomic development issues, public policy, and equity across different vectors of gender, caste, class, and ability, which in turn fuelled her transition from working at a global bank to the social sector. She is an Urban Fellow from the Indian Institute for Human Settlements, Bangalore and has a bachelor's degree in Economics from St. Stephen's College, University of Delhi.
Meet The Authors (GGI Fellows)
Nimish is a QHSE executive and fire protection engineer specializing in Offshore Energy Safety Management, leading safety initiatives and driving sustainable solutions at ONGC. With experience in international organisations like AIESEC, Rotaract, and HPAIR, he brings a global, impact-driven perspective to International relations, leadership and collaboration. Currently exploring enterprise-wide business risk management, he integrates safety excellence with organizational resilience.
Niharika Pandey is a Young Professional at the Rajasthan Grameen Aajeevika Vikas Parishad, Government of Rajasthan, and a candidate of the GGI Impact Fellowship Program. She holds an M.A. in Women's Studies and has completed an audit course from Cornell University. Niharika is a sustainability enthusiast with a strong passion for documentation and communication. Alongside her work with SRLM, she serves as Chief of Staff at GGI. Outside of her professional interests, she is a Kathak dance enthusiast who loves engaging with people.
Nikita Magoon serves as a UN Volunteer at the United Nations Office at Vienna. With a Master’s in Development Studies from the London School of Economics and a Bachelor’s in Sociology from Lady Shri Ram College for Women, she brings a multidisciplinary perspective to her work. Nikita has engaged in research, fieldwork, and development programs across social, economic, and private sectors, contributing to projects that promote inclusive and sustainable development.
If you are interested in applying to GGI's Impact Fellowship program, you can access our application link here.
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